Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary

Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary [1] approach for exploring regulatory systems , their structures, constraints, and possibilities. In the 21st century, the term is often used in a rather loose way to imply "control of any system using technology;" this has blunted its meaning to such an extent that many writers avoid using it.
Cybernetics is relevant to the study of systems, such as mechanical, physical, biological, cognitive, and social systems . Cybernetics is applicable when a system being analyzed incorporates a closed signaling loop; that is, where action by the system generates some change in its environment and that change is reflected in that system in some manner (feedback ) that triggers a system change, originally referred to as a "circular causal" relationship.
System dynamics , a related field, originated with applications of electrical engineering
control theory to other kinds of simulation models (especially business systems) by
Jay Forrester at MIT in the 1950s.
Concepts studied by cyberneticists include, but are not limited to: learning, cognition ,
adaptation , social control , emergence ,
communication, efficiency , efficacy , and
connectivity . These concepts are studied by other subjects such as engineering and
biology, but in cybernetics these are abstracted from the context of the individual
organism or device .
Norbert Wiener defined cybernetics in 1948 as "the scientific study of control and communication in the animal and the machine." [2] The word cybernetics comes from Greek κυβερνητική (kybernetike ), meaning "governance", i.e., all that are pertinent to κυβερνάω (kybernao), the latter meaning "to steer, navigate or govern", hence κυβέρνησις (kybernesis ), meaning "government", is the government while κυβερνήτης (kybernetes) is the governor or the captain. Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems,
electrical network theory , mechanical engineering , logic modeling , evolutionary biology, neuroscience , anthropology, and
psychology in the 1940s, often attributed to the Macy Conferences . During the second half of the 20th century cybernetics evolved in ways that distinguish first-order cybernetics (about observed systems) from
second-order cybernetics (about observing systems). [3] More recently there is talk about a third-order cybernetics (doing in ways that embraces first and second-order).
[4]
Fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include
game theory , system theory (a mathematical counterpart to cybernetics),
perceptual control theory , sociology , psychology (especially neuropsychology ,
behavioral psychology , cognitive psychology ), philosophy , architecture, and
organizational theory . [5]
Definitions
Cybernetics has been defined in a variety of ways, by a variety of people, from a variety of disciplines. The Larry Richards Reader includes a listing by Stuart Umpleby of notable definitions: [6]
"Science concerned with the study of systems of any nature which are capable of receiving, storing and processing information so as to use it for control." — A. N. Kolmogorov
"The art of securing efficient operation." —
Louis Couffignal[7]
"'The art of steersmanship': deals with all forms of behavior in so far as they are regular, or determinate, or reproducible: stands to the real machine -- electronic, mechanical, neural, or economic -- much as geometry stands to real object in our terrestrial space; offers a method for the scientific treatment of the system in which complexity is outstanding and too important to be ignored." — W. Ross Ashby
"A branch of mathematics dealing with problems of control, recursiveness, and information, focuses on forms and the patterns that connect." — Gregory Bateson
"The art of effective organization." —
Stafford Beer
"The art and science of manipulating defensible metaphors." — Gordon Pask
"The art of creating equilibrium in a world of constraints and possibilities." — Ernst von Glasersfeld
"The science and art of understanding." —
Humberto Maturana
"The ability to cure all temporary truth of eternal triteness." — Herbert Brun
Other notable definitions include:
"The science and art of the understanding of understanding." — Rodney E. Donaldson, the first president of the American Society for Cybernetics
"A way of thinking about ways of thinking of which it is one." — Larry Richards
"The art of interaction in dynamic networks." — Roy Ascott
Etymology
Simple feedback model. AB < 0 for negative feedback .
The term cybernetics stems from
κυβερνήτης (kybernētēs) "steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder". As with the ancient Greek pilot, independence of thought is important in cybernetics. [8] Cybernetics is a broad field of study, but the essential goal of cybernetics is to understand and define the functions and processes of systems that have goals and that participate in circular, causal chains that move from action to sensing to comparison with desired goal, and again to action. Studies in cybernetics provide a means for examining the design and function of any system, including social systems such as business management and organizational learning, including for the purpose of making them more efficient and effective .
French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère first coined the word "cybernetique" in his 1834 essay Essai sur la philosophie des sciences to describe the science of civil government. [9]
Cybernetics was borrowed by Norbert Wiener, in his book "Cybernetics" , to define the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. [10] Stafford Beer called it the science of effective organization and Gordon Pask called it "the art of defensible metaphors" (emphasizing its constructivist epistemology) though he later extended it to include information flows "in all media" from stars to brains. It includes the study of feedback , black boxes and derived concepts such as
communication and control in living organisms , machines and organizations including self-organization . Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks. [11] A more philosophical definition, suggested in 1956 by Louis Couffignal, one of the pioneers of cybernetics, characterizes cybernetics as "the art of ensuring the efficacy of action." [12] The most recent definition has been proposed by Louis Kauffman , President of the American Society for Cybernetics , "Cybernetics is the study of systems and processes that interact with themselves and produce themselves from themselves."[13]
History
The roots of cybernetic theory
The word cybernetics was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" by
Plato in The Alcibiades to signify the
governance of people. [14] The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge.
James Watt
The first artificial automatic regulatory system, a water clock , was invented by the mechanician Ktesibios . In his water clocks, water flowed from a source such as a holding tank into a reservoir, then from the reservoir to the mechanisms of the clock. Ktesibios's device used a cone-shaped float to monitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of the water accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir, so that it neither overflowed nor was allowed to run dry. This was the first artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outside intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism. Although they did not refer to this concept by the name of Cybernetics (they considered it a field of engineering),
Ktesibios and others such as Heron and Su Song are considered to be some of the first to study cybernetic principles.
The study of teleological mechanisms (from the Greek τέλος or telos for end , goal, or
purpose ) in machines with corrective feedback dates from as far back as the late 18th century when James Watt 's steam engine was equipped with a governor , a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. Alfred Russel Wallace identified this as the principle of
evolution in his famous 1858 paper. [15] In 1868 James Clerk Maxwell published a theoretical article on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. Jakob von Uexküll applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (Funktionskreis) in order to explain animal behaviour and the origins of meaning in general.
The early 20th century
Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical network theory , mechanical engineering , logic modeling , evolutionary biology and
neuroscience in the 1940s. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black on using negative feedback to control amplifiers. The ideas are also related to the biological work of
Ludwig von Bertalanffy in General Systems Theory.
Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during World War II. Jay Forrester, a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT during WWII working with Gordon S. Brown to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy, later applied these ideas to social organizations such as corporations and cities as an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the MIT Sloan School of Management. Forrester is known as the founder of System Dynamics .
W. Edwards Deming , the Total Quality Management guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial prize , was an intern at Bell Te

النتائج (العربية) 1:

علم التحكم الآلي اتباع نهج متعدد التخصصات [1] لاستكشاف النظم التنظيمية، والهياكل، والقيود، وإمكانيات. في القرن الحادي والعشرين، غالباً ما يتم استخدام المصطلح بطريقة فضفاضة بدلاً من ذلك ليعني "التحكم في أي نظام باستخدام التكنولوجيا؛" وهذا قد حدث لها معنى إلى حد أن العديد من الكتاب تجنب استخدامه.علم التحكم الآلي ذات الصلة لدراسة النظم، مثل النظم الميكانيكية والفيزيائية، والبيولوجية، المعرفية والاجتماعية. علم التحكم الآلي ينطبق عندما يتضمن نظام يجري تحليل إشارات حلقة مغلقة؛ ، حيث يولد العمل بالنظام بعض التغيير في بيئته وأن ينعكس التغيير في هذا النظام بطريقة ما (التغذية المرتدة) الذي يقوم بتشغيل تغيير نظام، أصلاً المشار إليها كعلاقة "السببية دائرية".ديناميات النظام، حقل صلة، نشأت مع تطبيقات الهندسة الكهربائيةنظرية التحكم لأنواع أخرى من نماذج المحاكاة (لا سيما الأنظمة التجارية) قبلجاي فوريستر في معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا في الخمسينات.وتشمل المفاهيم التي يدرسها سيبيرنيتيسيستس، ولكن لا تقتصر على: التعلم، الإدراك،التكيف، والرقابة الاجتماعية، وظهور،الاتصالات، والكفاءة، والفعالية، واتصال. يتم دراسة هذه المفاهيم بمواضيع أخرى مثل الهندسة وعلم الأحياء، ولكن في علم التحكم الآلي وهذه هي المستخرجة من السياق للفردالكائن الحي أو الجهاز.نوربرت فينر تعرف علم التحكم الآلي في عام 1948 بأنها "الدراسة العلمية للتحكم والاتصالات في الحيوان والإله". [2] علم التحكم الآلي كلمة يأتي من اليونانية κυβερνητική (كيبيرنيتيكي)، بمعنى "الحكم"، أي كل ما تتصل κυβερνάω (كيبيرناو)، معنى هذا الأخير "توجيه أو التنقل أو تحكم"، وبالتالي هو κυβέρνησις (كيبيرنيسيس)، بمعنى "الحكومة"، الحكومة حين κυβερνήτης (كيبيرنيتيس) هو الحاكم أو القبطان. علم التحكم الآلي المعاصرة بدأت كدراسة متعددة التخصصات تربط حقول نظم المراقبة،نظرية الشبكة الكهربائية، الهندسة الميكانيكية، نمذجة المنطق، وعلم الأحياء التطوري، علم الأعصاب، علم الإنسان، وعلم النفس في الأربعينات من القرن الماضي، كثيرا ما يعزى إلى "مؤتمرات ميسي". خلال النصف الثاني من القرن العشرين تطور علم التحكم الآلي بطرق التمييز الآلي الدرجة الأولى (حول أنظمة الملاحظة) منالثاني-النظام الآلي (حول نظم المراقبة). [3] أكثر مؤخرا هناك الحديث عن الثالث-النظام الآلي (القيام في الطرق التي تحتضن الأولى والدرجة الثانية).[4]وتشمل ميادين الدراسة التي تتأثر أو قد تتأثر بعلم التحكم الآلينظرية الألعاب، نظرية النظام (نظيره رياضي إلى علم التحكم الآلي)،نظرية التحكم في الإدراك الحسي، وعلم الاجتماع وعلم النفس (خاصة علم النفس العصبي،السلوكية في علم النفس، وعلم النفس المعرفي)، والفلسفة، والهندسة المعمارية، والنظرية التنظيمية. [5]تعريفاتعرف علم التحكم الآلي في مجموعة متنوعة من الطرق، بمجموعة متنوعة من الناس، من مجموعة متنوعة من التخصصات. القارئ ريتشاردز لاري يتضمن قائمة بواسطة ستيوارت قاسم من أبرز تعريفات: [6]"العلمية المعنية بدراسة نظم أي الطبيعة التي قادرة على استلام وتخزين ومعالجة المعلومات من أجل استخدامها للتحكم." — ألف أ. كولموغوروف"الفن لضمان كفاءة تشغيل." —Louis كوفيجنال [7]"' فن ستيرسمانشيب ': يتناول جميع أشكال السلوك بقدر ما العادية، أو بعوض، أو استنساخه: تقف الحقيقي آلة-الإلكترونية أو الميكانيكية، والعصبية، أو الاقتصادية-بقدر ما الهندسة تقف على كائن حقيقي في مجالنا الأرضي؛ يوفر طريقة للمعالجة العلمية للنظام الذي التعقيد بارزة وهامة جداً لا يمكن تجاهله. "— جورج روس أشبي"فرع من الرياضيات التعامل مع المشاكل المتعلقة بالرقابة، وريكورسيفينيس، والمعلومات، تركز على أشكال وأنماط الاتصال." — غريغوري بيتسون"فن التنظيم الفعال." —البيرة ستافورد"الفن والعلم من التلاعب الاستعارات يمكن الدفاع عنها." — باسك Gordon"فن خلق التوازن في عالم القيود والإمكانيات." — إرنست فون جلاسيرسفيلد"العلم والفن للتفاهم." —هومبرتو ماتورانا"القدرة على علاج جميع الحقيقة مؤقتة من تريتينيس الأبدية." — Brun هربرتOther notable definitions include:"The science and art of the understanding of understanding." — Rodney E. Donaldson, the first president of the American Society for Cybernetics"A way of thinking about ways of thinking of which it is one." — Larry Richards"The art of interaction in dynamic networks." — Roy AscottEtymologySimple feedback model. AB < 0 for negative feedback .The term cybernetics stems fromκυβερνήτης (kybernētēs) "steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder". As with the ancient Greek pilot, independence of thought is important in cybernetics. [8] Cybernetics is a broad field of study, but the essential goal of cybernetics is to understand and define the functions and processes of systems that have goals and that participate in circular, causal chains that move from action to sensing to comparison with desired goal, and again to action. Studies in cybernetics provide a means for examining the design and function of any system, including social systems such as business management and organizational learning, including for the purpose of making them more efficient and effective .French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère first coined the word "cybernetique" in his 1834 essay Essai sur la philosophie des sciences to describe the science of civil government. [9]Cybernetics was borrowed by Norbert Wiener, in his book "Cybernetics" , to define the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. [10] Stafford Beer called it the science of effective organization and Gordon Pask called it "the art of defensible metaphors" (emphasizing its constructivist epistemology) though he later extended it to include information flows "in all media" from stars to brains. It includes the study of feedback , black boxes and derived concepts such ascommunication and control in living organisms , machines and organizations including self-organization . Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks. [11] A more philosophical definition, suggested in 1956 by Louis Couffignal, one of the pioneers of cybernetics, characterizes cybernetics as "the art of ensuring the efficacy of action." [12] The most recent definition has been proposed by Louis Kauffman , President of the American Society for Cybernetics , "Cybernetics is the study of systems and processes that interact with themselves and produce themselves from themselves."[13]HistoryThe roots of cybernetic theoryThe word cybernetics was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" byPlato in The Alcibiades to signify thegovernance of people. [14] The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge.James WattThe first artificial automatic regulatory system, a water clock , was invented by the mechanician Ktesibios . In his water clocks, water flowed from a source such as a holding tank into a reservoir, then from the reservoir to the mechanisms of the clock. Ktesibios's device used a cone-shaped float to monitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of the water accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir, so that it neither overflowed nor was allowed to run dry. This was the first artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outside intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism. Although they did not refer to this concept by the name of Cybernetics (they considered it a field of engineering),Ktesibios and others such as Heron and Su Song are considered to be some of the first to study cybernetic principles.The study of teleological mechanisms (from the Greek τέλος or telos for end , goal, orpurpose ) in machines with corrective feedback dates from as far back as the late 18th century when James Watt 's steam engine was equipped with a governor , a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. Alfred Russel Wallace identified this as the principle ofevolution in his famous 1858 paper. [15] In 1868 James Clerk Maxwell published a theoretical article on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. Jakob von Uexküll applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (Funktionskreis) in order to explain animal behaviour and the origins of meaning in general.The early 20th centuryContemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical network theory , mechanical engineering , logic modeling , evolutionary biology andneuroscience in the 1940s. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black on using negative feedback to control amplifiers. The ideas are also related to the biological work ofLudwig von Bertalanffy in General Systems Theory.Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during World War II. Jay Forrester, a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT during WWII working with Gordon S. Brown to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy, later applied these ideas to social organizations such as corporations and cities as an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the MIT Sloan School of Management. Forrester is known as the founder of System Dynamics .W. Edwards Deming , the Total Quality Management guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial prize , was an intern at Bell Te

النتائج (العربية) 3:

التحكم الآلي هو التخصصات [1] نهج لاستكشاف النظم التنظيمية، وهياكلها المعوقات و الإمكانيات.في القرن 21، عبارة كثيرا ما تستخدم بطريقة فضفاضة نوعا ما يعني "أي نظام التحكم باستخدام التكنولوجيا؛ هذا وقد قلل معناها إلى حد أن الكثير من الكتاب تجنب استخدامه
الآلي المتصلة بدراسة النظم، مثل الميكانيكية،البدنية والإدراكية والحيوية النظم الاجتماعية.التحكم الآلي تنطبق عندما يكون نظام تحليل يتضمن علامة حلقة مغلقة، وهذا هو، حيث عمل من قبل النظام يولد بعض التغيير في بيئته وينعكس هذا التغيير في هذا النظام بطريقة (التغذية الراجعة) أن يتسبب في تغيير النظام أصلا المشار إليها بأنها "سببية دائرية “ العلاقة -
ديناميكا النظام أو أي مجال ذي صلة، نشأت مع تطبيقات الهندسة الكهربائية
نظرية التحكم في أنواع أخرى من نماذج المحاكاة (وخاصة النظم التجارية).

جاي فوريستر في معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا في الخمسينيات المفاهيم المدروسة من قبل cyberneticists تشمل، ولكنها لا تقتصر على: التعلم، والتكيف مع الإدراك،
والرقابة الاجتماعية، وظهور
والاتصالات، والكفاءة، والفعالية،
التوصيل.هذه المفاهيم هي التي تدرس مواضيع أخرى مثل الهندسة وعلم الأحياء
، لكن في الضبط وهي تجريد الفرد من السياق
الكائن أو جهاز
نوربرت فينر المحدد التحكم الآلي في عام 1948 بأنه "الدراسة العلمية والسيطرة والاتصالات في الحيوان والآلة." [2) لفظة السِبرانية يأتي من κυβερνητική اليوناني (kybernetike)،معنى "الحكم"، أي جميع القواعد ذات الصلة في (kybernao)، الذي "التوجيه أو السيطرة، سوينغ، وبالتالي فإن الحكومة" (kybernesis) تعني "الحكومة" في (بريطانيا) هو الحاكم كابتن أو قائد.كما cybernetics المعاصرة بدأت interdisciplinary ربط نظام مراقبة مجالات الدراسة

نظرية الشبكات الكهربائية، الهندسة الميكانيكية، نمذجة المنطق، علم الأحياء التطوري، علم الأعصاب، وعلم الإنسان، وعلم النفس
في الأربعينات، غالباً ما يرجع إلى ميسي المؤتمرات.وخلال النصف الثاني من القرن العشرين تطورت السِبرانية في السبل التي تميز الضبط من الدرجة الأولى (عن مراعاتها الأنظمة) من
second-order التحكم الآلي (على الملاحظة نظم).([3]) وفي الآونة الأخيرة هناك من يتحدث عن third-order التحكم الآلي (تعمل في الطرق التي تحتضن أول second-order). (٤)

مجالات الدراسة التي قد تتأثر أو تأثر التحكم الآلي تشمل
نظرية اللعبة، نظرية النظم (النظير رياضي على التحكم الآلي)
ادراكي نظرية سيطرة، علم الاجتماع، علم النفس (وخاصة العصبي،
علم النفس السلوكي،