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Exchange and Rational Choice Theories 153
superiors and making various contributions to
the organization. The leadership exercises power
within the organization, and it derives power
from the organization for use in relation with
other organizations or groups. The clearest
illustration of this double power of organizational
leadership is the army commander’s power over
his own soldiers and, through the force of their
arms, over the enemy. Another example is the
power business management exercises over its
own employees and, through the strength of the
concern, in the market. The greater the external
power of an organization, the greater are its
chances of accumulating resources that put
rewards at the disposal of the leadership for
possible distribution among the members.
The normative expectations of those subject
to the exercise of power, which are rooted in
their social experience, govern their reactions to
it. In terms of these standards, the benefits
derived from being part of an organization or
political society may outweigh the investments
required to obtain them, or the demands made on
members may exceed the returns they receive for
fulfilling these demands. The exercise of power,
therefore, may produce two different kinds of
imbalance, a positive imbalance of benefits for
subordinates or a negative imbalance of
exploitation and oppression.
If the members of an organization, or generally
those subject to a governing leadership,
commonly agree that the demands made on them
are only fair and just in view of the ample
rewards the leadership delivers, joint feelings of
obligation and loyalty to superiors will arise and
bestow legitimating approval on their authority.
A positive imbalance of benefits generates
legitimate authority for the leadership and
thereby strengthens and extends its controlling
influence. By expressing legitimating approval
of, and loyalty to, those who govern them
subordinates reciprocate for the benefits their
leadership provides, but they simultaneously
fortify the imbalance of power in the social
structure.
If the demands of the men who exercise power
are experienced by those subject to it as
exploitative and oppressive, and particularly if
these subordinates have been unsuccessful in
obtaining redress for their grievances, their
frustrations tend to promote disapproval of
existing powers and antagonism toward them. As
the oppressed communicate their anger and
aggression to each other, provided there are
opportunities for doing so, their mutual support
and approval socially justify and reinforce the
negative orientation toward the oppressors, and
their collective hostility may inspire them to
organize an opposition. The exploitative use of
coercive power that arouses active opposition is
more prevalent in the relations between
organizations and groups than within organizations.
Two reasons for this are that the advantages of
legitimating approval restrain organizational
superiors and that the effectiveness of legitimate
authority, once established, obviates the need for
coercive measures. But the exploitative use of
power also occurs w
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