Richmond , Egypt 1798-195241 THE EA

Richmond , Egypt 1798-1952




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THE EARLY EXPANSION AND THE GREEK CAMPAIGN, 1811-183I In the middle of the eighteenth century a religious reformer called Muham- mad b.'Abd ul Wahhab had returned to Arabia after religious studies in Damascus and converted a family ruling in central Arabia, the Al Sa'ud, to his fundamentalist Puritan creed. Under the inspiration of his religious teachings the Al Sa'ud expanded their rule from Derayah, close to the modern Ryadh, challenged the nominal Turkish authority in Arabia and began to raid the settled territories surrounding its desert. The Wahhabis, as these zealots were called, sacked Kerbela in Iraq in 18or, interrupted the pilgrimage by the capture of Mecca in 1802, and of Medina in 18o6, and even threatened Damascus in 18IO It was the Sultan's religious duty to secure the safety of the pilgrimage to the Holy Places, Mecca and Medina, but he was powerless to do so in the early years of the nineteenth century. So the Porte, albeit with mixed motives as we have seen, had been pressing Mohamed Aly since the end of 18o7 to undertake the repression of the Wahhabi menace. While he was still uncertain of his hold on Egypt, Mohamed Aly's response to the Sultan's appeals had been limited to words, but in 18 he began to organize an expedition and in the autumn his second son Tusun led an army into the Hejaz. Before they were conquered by the petrol or diesel engine, deserts always presented difficulties to organized armies and the mobility of Sa'ud's bedouin forces enabled them to avoid pitched battles and to fight only when topography or the supply difficulties of the Egyptians gave them an advantage. Nevertheless Tusun succeeded in occupying the Holy Cities in the winter of 1811-12. His attempts to enlarge these conquests were less successful and he had to retreat in r813 to the quadrilateral bounded by Mecca and Medina and their respective Red Sea ports, Jedda and Yanbu Mohamed Aly himself brought reinforcements to Arabia in August 1813. His objective was to cut off the central Arabian stronghold from the Red Sea by capturing the port of Qunfidhah 20o miles south of Jedda and the town of Taraba (modern Turabah) some ninety miles east and south of Mecca. His success was limited, and an Egyptian detachment 41

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Egypt 1798-1gs2 was destroyed at Qunfidhah in the spring of 18m4. The death of the leader Sa'ad shortly afterwards improved the Egyptian position and the pilgrimage, which had been suspended for about a decade, was celebrated with éclat in November 1814, thus raising Mohamed Aly's prestige throughout Islam. Early in Isrs, while Tusun watched the road to the Wahhabi capital from Medina, Mohamed Aly fought a successful action at Kulaikh fifty miles east of Mecca and took Taraba. June, because of some disaffection at home, he returned to Egypt leaving the Wahhabi capital intact. He used this fact to try to persuade the Sultan to grant him the pashalik of Damascus, from which Derayah could be more conveniently attacked, but the Sultan did not respond Tusun remained in Arabia to begin the long march, more than 30o miles, to Derayah. He succeeded in suborning some of the tribes from their Sa'udi allegiance, and alarmed by this Abdullah b. Sa'ud, a less effective leader than his father, negotiated terms of submission with the Egyptians. Tusun returned to Egypt in November, but because he had failed to reduce the Wahhabi capital, Mohamed Aly repudiated the agreement he had made and entrusted a further campaign to his eldest son Ibrahim. Ibrahim had been governing Upper Egypt, extinguishing the last sparks of Mamluk dissidence and reducing the powerful Hawwara Bedouin to the Pasha's obedience. He spent most of 1816 in preparing for a new Wahhabi campaign and early in 1817 crossed the Red Sea and began the march on Derayah. He moved cautiously from oasis to oasis and was held up for six months at Ras, still Iso miles short ofhis objective He finally reached Derayah in April 1818, but it was not until September that he was able to take it and to send Abdullah b. Sa'ud to Constantin ople and execution According to the Frenchman vaissieres, who accompanied the expedi- tion, the normal marching time from the port of through to Derayah would be about 3oo seven eight wee It up the difficulties ofsupplying an army and campaigning against an elusive no enemy in the Arabian desert that the march took Ibrahim's army something like ten times long, and says something for Ibrahim's soldierly qualities that, in these conditions, he kept together his practically untrained levies brought from North Africa and Syria, for eighteen months. The difficulties encountered on this campaign convinced Ibrahim and his father of the need for more European organization for their armies. Some French advisers were with

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النتائج (العربية) 1:

ريتشموند، مصر 1798-195241 THE EARLY EXPANSION AND THE GREEK CAMPAIGN, 1811-183I In the middle of the eighteenth century a religious reformer called Muham- mad b.'Abd ul Wahhab had returned to Arabia after religious studies in Damascus and converted a family ruling in central Arabia, the Al Sa'ud, to his fundamentalist Puritan creed. Under the inspiration of his religious teachings the Al Sa'ud expanded their rule from Derayah, close to the modern Ryadh, challenged the nominal Turkish authority in Arabia and began to raid the settled territories surrounding its desert. The Wahhabis, as these zealots were called, sacked Kerbela in Iraq in 18or, interrupted the pilgrimage by the capture of Mecca in 1802, and of Medina in 18o6, and even threatened Damascus in 18IO It was the Sultan's religious duty to secure the safety of the pilgrimage to the Holy Places, Mecca and Medina, but he was powerless to do so in the early years of the nineteenth century. So the Porte, albeit with mixed motives as we have seen, had been pressing Mohamed Aly since the end of 18o7 to undertake the repression of the Wahhabi menace. While he was still uncertain of his hold on Egypt, Mohamed Aly's response to the Sultan's appeals had been limited to words, but in 18 he began to organize an expedition and in the autumn his second son Tusun led an army into the Hejaz. Before they were conquered by the petrol or diesel engine, deserts always presented difficulties to organized armies and the mobility of Sa'ud's bedouin forces enabled them to avoid pitched battles and to fight only when topography or the supply difficulties of the Egyptians gave them an advantage. Nevertheless Tusun succeeded in occupying the Holy Cities in the winter of 1811-12. His attempts to enlarge these conquests were less successful and he had to retreat in r813 to the quadrilateral bounded by Mecca and Medina and their respective Red Sea ports, Jedda and Yanbu Mohamed Aly himself brought reinforcements to Arabia in August 1813. His objective was to cut off the central Arabian stronghold from the Red Sea by capturing the port of Qunfidhah 20o miles south of Jedda and the town of Taraba (modern Turabah) some ninety miles east and south of Mecca. His success was limited, and an Egyptian detachment 4142Egypt 1798-1gs2 was destroyed at Qunfidhah in the spring of 18m4. The death of the leader Sa'ad shortly afterwards improved the Egyptian position and the pilgrimage, which had been suspended for about a decade, was celebrated with éclat in November 1814, thus raising Mohamed Aly's prestige throughout Islam. Early in Isrs, while Tusun watched the road to the Wahhabi capital from Medina, Mohamed Aly fought a successful action at Kulaikh fifty miles east of Mecca and took Taraba. June, because of some disaffection at home, he returned to Egypt leaving the Wahhabi capital intact. He used this fact to try to persuade the Sultan to grant him the pashalik of Damascus, from which Derayah could be more conveniently attacked, but the Sultan did not respond Tusun remained in Arabia to begin the long march, more than 30o miles, to Derayah. He succeeded in suborning some of the tribes from their Sa'udi allegiance, and alarmed by this Abdullah b. Sa'ud, a less effective leader than his father, negotiated terms of submission with the Egyptians. Tusun returned to Egypt in November, but because he had failed to reduce the Wahhabi capital, Mohamed Aly repudiated the agreement he had made and entrusted a further campaign to his eldest son Ibrahim. Ibrahim had been governing Upper Egypt, extinguishing the last sparks of Mamluk dissidence and reducing the powerful Hawwara Bedouin to the Pasha's obedience. He spent most of 1816 in preparing for a new Wahhabi campaign and early in 1817 crossed the Red Sea and began the march on Derayah. He moved cautiously from oasis to oasis and was held up for six months at Ras, still Iso miles short ofhis objective He finally reached Derayah in April 1818, but it was not until September that he was able to take it and to send Abdullah b. Sa'ud to Constantin ople and execution According to the Frenchman vaissieres, who accompanied the expedi- tion, the normal marching time from the port of through to Derayah would be about 3oo seven eight wee It up the difficulties ofsupplying an army and campaigning against an elusive no enemy in the Arabian desert that the march took Ibrahim's army something like ten times long, and says something for Ibrahim's soldierly qualities that, in these conditions, he kept together his practically untrained levies brought from North Africa and Syria, for eighteen months. The difficulties encountered on this campaign convinced Ibrahim and his father of the need for more European organization for their armies. Some French advisers were with43

النتائج (العربية) 2:

ريتشموند، مصر 1798-1952




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التمدد الباكر والحملة اليونانية، 1811-183I في منتصف القرن الثامن عشر المصلح الديني دعا Muham- جنون b.'Abd المجاهدين الوهاب قد عاد إلى المملكة بعد الدراسات الدينية في دمشق وتحويلها ل العائلة الحاكمة في وسط شبه الجزيرة العربية، وآل سعود، إلى عقيدته البروتستانتي الأصولية. تحت الالهام من تعاليمه الدينية آل سعود توسيع حكمهم من دراية، على مقربة من الرياض الحديثة، تحدى السلطة التركية الاسمية في المملكة، وبدأت الإغارة على المناطق المحيطة استقر صحرائها. الوهابيين، كما تم استدعاء هؤلاء المتطرفين، أقال كربلاء في العراق في 18or، انقطع الحج من قبل الاستيلاء على مكة المكرمة في عام 1802، والمدينة المنورة في 18o6، وحتى هددت دمشق في 18IO كان واجب السلطان الديني لتأمين سلامة كان الحج إلى الأماكن المقدسة ومكة المكرمة والمدينة المنورة، لكنه عاجز عن القيام بذلك في السنوات الأولى من القرن التاسع عشر. ذلك الباب العالي، ولكن مع دوافع مختلطة كما رأينا، قد تضغط محمد علي منذ نهاية 18o7 للقيام قمع الخطر الوهابي. بينما كان لا يزال غير مؤكد من قبضته على مصر، والاستجابة محمد علي في الطعون السلطان قد تقتصر على الكلمات، ولكن في 18 بدأ تنظيم رحلة استكشافية وفي الخريف ابنه الثاني Tusun قاد جيشا إلى الحجاز. قبل أن يتم فتحها من قبل محرك البنزين أو الديزل، والصحارى قدم دائما صعوبات في الجيوش المنظمة، والتنقل من قوات البدو سعود من مكنهم من تفادي معارك ضارية ومحاربة فقط عندما أعطى الطبوغرافيا أو توريد الصعوبات التي تواجه المصريين لهم ميزة . ومع ذلك نجح Tusun في احتلال المدن المقدسة في شتاء 1811-1812. وكانت محاولاته لتكبير هذه الفتوحات أقل نجاحا واضطر لتتراجع في r813 إلى الرباعي يحدها من مكة المكرمة والمدينة المنورة ومنها موانئ البحر الأحمر، وجدة وينبع محمد علي نفسه جلبت تعزيزات إلى المملكة في شهر أغسطس كان 1813. هدفه لخفض من معقل العربي المركزي من البحر الأحمر عن طريق الاستيلاء على ميناء Qunfidhah 20o كيلومترا جنوبي جدة ومدينة تارابا (Turabah الحديث) بعض تسعين ميلا شرق وجنوب مكة المكرمة. كان نجاحه محدودا، ومفرزة المصرية 41

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مصر 1798-1gs2 دمرت في Qunfidhah في ربيع عام 18m4. وفاة زعيم سعد قريبا تحسنت بعد ذلك الموقف المصري والحج، والتي كانت قد علقت لمدة عشر سنوات، وكان يحتفل مع بهاء في نوفمبر تشرين الثاني عام 1814، مما أدى إلى رفع مكانة محمد علي في جميع أنحاء الإسلام. في ISRS في وقت مبكر، في حين يشاهد Tusun الطريق إلى العاصمة الوهابي من المدينة المنورة، وخاض محمد علي عمل ناجحة في Kulaikh خمسين ميلا إلى الشرق من مكة المكرمة وأخذ ترابا. يونيو، بسبب بعض السخط في المنزل، وعاد إلى مصر مغادرته العاصمة الوهابي سليمة. انه استخدم هذه الحقيقة في محاولة لإقناع السلطان منحه pashalik من دمشق، والتي من دراية يمكن أن تتعرض للهجوم أكثر سهولة، ولكن بقي السلطان لم تستجب Tusun في المملكة لبدء مسيرة طويلة، أكثر من 30o ميلا، إلى دراية . نجح في باستمالة بعض القبائل من ولائهم Sa'udi، وانزعاجهم من هذا عبد الله ب. سعود وهو زعيم أقل فعالية من والده، التفاوض حول شروط التقديم مع المصريين. عاد Tusun لمصر في نوفمبر تشرين الثاني، ولكن لأنه كان قد فشل في تخفيض راس المال الوهابي، تنكرت محمد علي الاتفاق كان قد أدلى به وعهد حملة أخرى لابنه الأكبر إبراهيم ابنه. وكان إبراهيم قد يحكم صعيد مصر، إطفاء الشرر الأخيرة من المماليك الانشقاق والحد من قوة حواره البدو إلى طاعة باشا. أمضى أكثر من 1816 في التحضير للحملة الوهابية الجديدة وفي وقت مبكر في عام 1817 عبروا البحر الأحمر وبدأت المسيرة على دراية. انتقل بحذر من واحة إلى واحة واحتجازه لأكثر من ستة أشهر في رأس، لا يزال ايزو ميل ofhis قصيرة موضوعية وصلت أخيرا دراية في أبريل 1818، ولكن لم يكن حتى سبتمبر ايلول انه كان قادرا على اتخاذ ذلك وإرسال عبد الله ب. سعود إلى كونستانتين اوبل والتنفيذ وفقا لvaissieres الفرنسي، الذي رافق نشوئها expedi-، والوقت يسير الطبيعي من ميناء حتى دراية سيكون حول 3OO سبعة ثمانية وي وحتى الصعوبات ofsupplying جيشا والحملات ضد بعيد المنال أي عدو في الصحراء العربية التي اتخذت مسيرة إبراهيم شيئا الجيش مثل عشرة أضعاف منذ فترة طويلة، وتقول شيئا عن الصفات إبراهيم باسل ذلك، في هذه الظروف، ولكنه احتفظ معا له الجبايات غير المدربة عمليا جلبت من شمال أفريقيا وسوريا، لمدة ثمانية عشر شهرا. الصعوبات التي واجهتها في هذه الحملة أقنعت إبراهيم والده من الحاجة لمزيد من المنظمة الأوروبية لجيوشها. وكانت بعض المستشارين الفرنسيين مع

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