the rise of a descriptive approach that had its origins in comparative literature and Russian Formalism. A pioneering centre has been Tel Aviv, where Itamar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury have pursued the idea of the Merary polysystem in which, amongst other things, different literatures and Eenres, including translated and non-translated works, compete for dominance The polysystemists have worked with a Beigium-based group including jose and the late Andri. Lefevere(who sequently moved to the University of Austin, Texas), and with the UK-based scholars Susan Bassnett and Theo Hermans. A key volume was the collection of essays edited by Hermans, Th Manipulation of uterature Studies in uterary Translation(Hermans 1985a) which gave rise to the name of the'Manipulation Schoor. This dynamic, culturally oriented approach held sway for much of the following decade, a linguistics looked very staid The 1990s saw the incorporation of new schools and concepts, with Canadian based translation and gender research led by Sherry sumon, the Brazilian cannibalist school promoted by Else Vieira, postcolonial translation theory, with the prominent figures of the Bengali scholars Tejaswini Niranjana and Gayatri Spivak and, in the USA, the cultural studies oriented analysis of uawrence Venuti, who champions the cause of the translator F years, the practice of translation was considered to be derivative and secondary, an attitude that inevitably devalued any academic study of the activity Now, after much neglect and repression, translation studies has become well established It h making swift advances worldwide, although not without a take place within the to Translation and translation studies often translation is still context of modern language departments, a the practice of the research often denied parity with other academic research For example, of sessment exercise in the UK(a formal fi external audit and evaluation individuals' and departments' research out- put) still values academic articles higher than translations, even translations of whole books, notwithstanding th fact that the practice of translation must be an essential rience the expe translation theorist and trainer, that Holmes, him. self It was precisely this split between theory and practice The early a literary and a researcher, sought to overcome Kitty van manifestations and effects of such a split are clearly expresse by theory(1991: 6). She describes transla n teache fear that that would take over from practical training. and literary translators' views translation was an that could not theorized on the other academic art be